Women in the United States judiciary
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The number of women in the United States judiciary has increased as more women have entered law school, but women still face significant barriers in pursuing legal careers.
History
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Women have long faced significant barriers to entering the legal profession in the U.S., and any steps forward were frequently followed by setbacks. For example, in June 1869, the Iowa Supreme Court ruled that Arabella Mansfield could not be denied a chance to take the bar exam because she was a woman. She took the exam and passed, becoming the first licensed female lawyer in the United States.[1] However, just 6 years later, in 1875, the Wisconsin Supreme Court denied Lavinia Goodell admission to the state bar on the grounds that "[n]ature has tempered woman as little for the juridical conflicts of the court room, as for the physical conflicts of the battle field. Womanhood is moulded [sic] for gentler and better things."[2]
In 1872, the United States Supreme Court affirmed a decision from the Supreme Court of Illinois that denied Myra Bradwell admission to the state bar. The state Supreme Court had reasoned that because state law invalidated any contract entered into by a married woman without the consent of her husband, women (most of whom would be married) could not adequately represent their clients. The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed, noting that even though some women might not actually be married, such women were the rare exceptions. The U.S. Supreme Court noted:
The paramount destiny and mission of woman are to fulfil the noble and benign offices of wife and mother. This is the law of the Creator. And the rules of civil society must be adapted to the general constitution of things, and cannot be based upon exceptional cases.
— Bradwell v. Illinois, 83 U.S. 130, 141-42 (1873).
Also in 1872, the Utah Bar admitted its first two women, Phoebe Couzins and Georgianna Snow.[3]
In 1873, Belva Lockwood was admitted to the Washington, D.C., bar after a yearlong dispute. In 1878, Clara Shortridge Foltz became the first woman to be admitted to practice law in the state of California. To do so, she had to lobby the state legislature to remove the gender restriction in the law. Nonetheless, after her legislative success, she was still denied admission to the state's Hastings College of Law on the grounds that women would "distract the attention of the male students." Foltz only gained admission to the state school after arguing her case to the California Supreme Court.[citation needed]
In Washington, D.C., Belva Lockwood lobbied Congress on three separate occasions to change the U.S. Supreme Court admissions rules to allow a woman to argue before the court. Her efforts succeeded. Lockwood was sworn in as the first woman member of the U.S. Supreme Court bar on March 3, 1879. Late in 1880, she became the first woman lawyer to argue a case before the U.S. Supreme Court.[4]
Even as women began to practice law, there were still few female judges. In 1884, the District of Columbia trial court appointed Marilla Ricker to the position of United States Commissioner. In 1886, the first woman to graduate from Pennsylvania Law School was appointed master in chancery for the city of Philadelphia. By 1907, Evanston, Illinois elected a woman, Catherine Waugh McCulloch to serve as a justice of the peace.[citation needed]
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Mary Bartelme was appointed judge assistant in Cook County, Illinois in 1913, where she presided over court cases involving juveniles and was referred to at that time as, "America's only woman judge", by The New York Times.[5] In 1914, Georgia Bullock was appointed the "woman judge" of Los Angeles, in charge of a court segregated by sex where "she would serve as a model of Victorian ideals of womanhood for female misdemeanants".[6]
Ratified in 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment granted women the right to vote. During this time, women began assuming judgeships, through both appointment and election. One such woman was Mary O'Toole, who became the first woman municipal judge of the United States, when she was appointed Judge of the Municipal Court of Washington, D.C. by President Harding in 1921.[7][8] In 1925, the first female lawyer in California, Clara Shortridge Foltz, was considered for a federal judgeship at the age of 76. Florence E. Allen became both the first woman to be elected to the positions of general jurisdiction court in 1920 and the first female state appellate judge through her election to the Ohio Supreme Court in 1922. She later became the first female federal appellate judge, appointed to the 6th Circuit in 1933. The Los Angeles Women's Judge Georgia Bullock was finally appointed to an 'official' judgeship in 1931. The first female judge to serve on a federal district court, Burnita Shelton Matthews, was appointed in 1949 to the United States District Court for the District of Columbia.[citation needed]
Barring women from practicing law was prohibited in the U.S. in 1971.[9] In 1975, Julia Cooper Mack was appointed to the D.C. Court of Appeals, making her the first woman of color, and only the eighth woman total, to be appointed to a court of last resort. By 1993, 60 women had served on the highest court in forty states, the District, and the federal courts. As of 2001,[10] women filled 26.3% of the judgeships on state courts of last resort, 19.2% of federal district court judgeships, 20.1% of federal appellate judgeships, and as of 2018, 33.3% of the U.S. Supreme Court.
In 1981, Sandra Day O'Connor was the first woman appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court. She received unanimous Senate approval.[11] Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, commenting on women pursuing careers, observed that "women professionals still have primary responsibility for the children and the housekeeping, spending roughly twice as much time on these cares as do their professional husbands."[12]
In 1992, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit convened the first federal all-female three-judge panel, composed of Sixth Circuit judges Alice M. Batchelder and Cornelia Groefsema Kennedy, alongside the Eastern District of Michigan's Anna Diggs Taylor, sitting by designation.[13]
Gender bias and barriers to entry in the US courts
In the 1980s and 1990s, women began to experience an increase in their access the courts, as employees, judges, and court-users. This increase in access, along with a renewed interest in uncovering underlying discrimination, led many courts to consider the experience that women were having in the traditionally male-dominated court system. In the early 1980s the National Organization for Women Legal Defense and Education Fund and the National Association of Women Judges banded together to push the state and federal courts to review a perceived bias against women that they believed existed in the courts. From 1982 to 1984, the New Jersey Supreme Court created and ran the nation's first official Task Force on Women in the Courts to "investigate the extent to which gender bias exists in the New Jersey judicial branch, and to develop an education program to eliminate any such bias". The task force found "significant gender bias," prompting the New Jersey Chief Justice to order the task force to continue its work indefinitely. The New Jersey report garnered significant public attention and prompted other states to consider similar studies in their own judicial branches.[citation needed]
At a 1988 joint meeting of the Conference of Chief Justices and the Conference of State Court Administrators the participants formulated resolutions directing each chief justice to create a task force in the judge's jurisdiction to study "gender bias and minority concerns". This effort resulted in a comprehensive overview of issues impacting women in the various state judiciaries. Starting in 1992 with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, the federal judiciary followed suit and sought to investigate any gender bias that might exist in the courts and seek ways to remedy the problems. The progress made by these courts was almost terminated in 1995, when the new Republican majority that swept into Congress under the Contract with America sought to cut off funding that had been provided to run these task forces on the federal level. The new majority "believed that bias task forces by the federal judiciary were both unnecessary and undesirable". However, the appropriation remained intact and tasks forces, such as Chief Judge Sloviter's Third Circuit Task Force, could continue to pursue their charters.[citation needed]
Since 1992, women's representation in law school classes has approached 50%.[14] And by 2021, women constituted 55% of law students, 45% of law faculty, and 42% of law deans.[15] However, the percentage of female federal judges is fairly lower. As of 2016, only 36% of judges on the federal courts of appeals were women, that is 60 out of 167 active judges. Women represented only 15% of judges on the Third Circuit, only 20% of judges on the Eight Circuit and only 25% of judges on the Tenth Circuit. As for women of color, there is even a smaller number. Only 12 women (7% of judges) of color were on the U.S. courts of appeals.[16]
In addition to other task forces, the Ninth Circuit's report found that many women believe that a major hindrance to attaining a judicial position is the lack of women "power players" in the connected "old boys' clubs" that often influence judicial appointments. Women judges and women lawyers attribute male-domination of the judiciary in large part to the exclusion of women from the networks that influence judicial appointments. Women lawyers attribute the small number of women appointed to bench and bar committees to the exclusion of women from formal and informal selection processes. A large proportion of women lawyers believe that men have a better chance than women to be promoted to law firm partnerships and to equivalent positions in public law organizations. (See Sandra Day O'Connor, The Effects of Gender in the Federal Courts: The Final Report of the Ninth Circuit Gender Bias Task Force: The Quality of Justice, 67 S. Cal. L. Rev. 745, 786-87 (1994).)[citation needed]
Inappropriate interactions
Many of the task forces found both explicit and implicit unacceptable treatment of female lawyers by male judges. For instance, in 1988, a senior status federal district court judge refused to address a female attorney as 'Ms.' and threatened to hold her in contempt if she persisted in using her birth name rather than her married name.[17] Women judges also report hearing more disparaging remarks[clarification needed] than male judges do.[18]
Notable women judges
State judges
- First female justice of the peace: Esther Hobart Morris in 1870[19]
- First elected female justice of the peace: Catherine Waugh McCulloch (1886) in 1907[20][21][22]
- First female probate judge: Mary H. Cooper in 1908:[23][24][25][26]
- First female juvenile judge: Mary Bartelme (1894) in 1913[27]
- First female elected judge: Florence E. Allen (1914) in 1920[28][29][30]
- First female municipal judge: Mary O'Toole (1914) in 1921[31]
- First female police judge: Julia W. Ker (1912) in 1926[32][31][33]
- First African American female: Jane Bolin (1932) in 1939[34]
- First sisters to simultaneously serve as judges: Cornelia Groefsema Kennedy (1947) and Margaret G. Schaeffer (1948)[35]
- First African American female (elected judge): Geraldine Bledsoe Ford in 1966[36]
- First Hispanic American female (county court judge): Dorothy Comstock Riley in 1972[37][38]
- First African American female (probate court):[39] Edith Jacqueline Ingram Grant in 1973
- First Latino American female: Frances Munoz (1972) in 1978[40][41][42][43][44]
- First Chinese American female: Patricia A. Yim Cowett (1972) in 1979[45][46][47]
- First openly lesbian: Mary C. Morgan (1972) in 1981[48]
- First Native American (Ojibwe) female (federal judge): Margaret Treuer (1977) in 1983[49][50][51][52][53]
- First Filipino American female: Lillian Y. Lim (1977) in 1986[54][55][56]
- First Vietnamese American female: Wendy Duong (1984) in 1992[57]
- First Dominican American (female) elected: Faviola Soto (1979) in 1994[58][59]
- First Muslim American female to preside over an American courtroom: Zakia Mahasa in 1997[60][61]
- First Indian American female: Rena M. Van Tine (1986) in 2001[62][63][64]
- First Hispanic American (female) to preside as an arbitrator on an American television court show: Marilyn Milian in 2001[65][66]
- First Korean American female: Jeannie Hong (1993) in 2002[67][68][69]
- First Muslim American female: Mona K. Majzoub in 2004[70]
- First Colombian American (female): Catalina M. Avalos in 2005[71]
- First Arab American female: Charlene Mekled Elder in 2006[61][72]
- First Ethiopian American (female): Nina Ashenafi-Richardson in 2008[73][74]
- First Ecuadorian American (female) elected: Carmen Velasquez in 2009[75]
- First known Pakistani American female: Pamela Leeming in 2009[76][77]
- First transgender woman: Phyllis Frye (1981) in 2010[78][79]
- First Egyptian American female elected: Sherrie Mikhail Miday (2001) in 2016[80][81][82]
- First Hasidic Jewish American female elected: Rachel Freier (2006) in 2017[83][84]
- First Hmong American females: Kashoua "Kristy" Yang (2009) and Sophia Y. Vuelo (1999) in 2017[85][86][87][88][89][90]
- First Cambodian American (female): Jana Seng in 2018[91]
- First Armenian-born (female): Amy Ashvanian in 2018[92]
- First Indonesian American female: Marissa Hutabarat (2010) in 2020[93][94]
- First Tibetan American (female): Tsering Cornell in 2022[95][96]
- First Laotian American (female): Chanpone Sinlapasai in 2022[97]
- First Sikh female: Manpreet Monica Singh in 2023[98]
- First hijab-wearing:[99] Nadia Kahf in 2023
State Appellate Court
- First female: Arleigh M. Woods (1953) in 1980[100][101]
State Supreme Court
- First female: Florence E. Allen (1914) in 1922[28][29][30]
- First female to serve as chief justice: Lorna E. Lockwood (1925) in 1970[102]
- First Hispanic American female: Dorothy Comstock Riley in 1982[103]
- First African American female to serve as chief justice: Leah Ward Sears (1980) in 2005[104]
- First openly lesbian: Virginia Linder (1980) in 2007[105]
- First openly lesbian to serve as chief justice: Maite Oronoz Rodríguez (2001) in 2016[106]
- First Native American (female): Anne McKeig in 2016[107]
Federal judges
- First female (federal judge): Kathryn Sellers (1911) in 1918[108]
- First African American female (federal judge): Constance Baker Motley (1946) in 1966[109][110][111]
- First Italian American female (federal judge): Veronica DiCarlo Wicker[112]
- First African American female (court of last resort): Julia Cooper Mack (1951) in 1975[113]
- First Mexican American female (federal judge): Irma Elsa Gonzalez (1973) in 1984[114]
- First Guatemalan American female (federal judge): Lourdes Baird in 1992[115]
- First Asian American female (federal judge):[116] Marilyn Go in 1993
- First openly lesbian African American (federal judge): Deborah Batts (1972) in 1994[117]
- First Cuban American female (federal judge): Cecilia Altonaga (1983) in 2003[118]
- First Chinese American female (federal judge): Dolly M. Gee (1984) in 2010[119]
- First Korean American female (federal judge): Lucy H. Koh (1993) in 2010[120]
- First South Asian female (federal judge): Cathy Bissoon (1993) in 2011[121]
- First Filipino American female (federal judge): Lorna G. Schofield (1981) in 2012[122]
- First openly lesbian Asian American (federal judge): Pamela K. Chen (1986) in 2013[123]
- First openly lesbian Latino American (federal judge): Nitza Quiñones Alejandro (1975) in 2013[124]
- First Native American (Hopi) female (federal judge): Diane Humetewa (1993) in 2014[125]
- First Iraqi Chaldean American (female) (federal judge): Hala Y. Jarbou[126] in 2020
- First Greek American female (federal judge): Eleni M. Roumel in 2020[127]
- First Navajo Nation (female) (federal judge): Sunshine Sykes in 2022[128]
- First Muslim American female and Bangladeshi American [female] (federal judge): Nusrat Choudhury in 2023[129]
- First Native Hawaiian female: Shanlyn A.S. Park in 2023[130]
U.S. Bankruptcy Court
- First African American female: Bernice B. Donald (1979) in 1988[131][132]
U.S. District Court
- First female: Burnita Shelton Matthews (1919) in 1949[133]
- First Puerto Rican American female: Carmen Consuelo Cerezo (1969) in 1980[134]
- First Asian American female: Susan Oki Mollway (1981) in 1988[135]
U.S. Magistrate
- First African American female (chief magistrate): Joyce London Alexander (1972) in 1979[136]
U.S. Circuit Court (Intermediate Appellate Courts)
- First female: Florence E. Allen (1914) in 1934[28][29][30]
- First African American female: Amalya Lyle Kearse (c. 1960s) in 1979[137]
- First Hispanic American female: Kim McLane Wardlaw (1979) in 1998[138]
- First openly lesbian African American (Seventh Circuit): Staci Michelle Yandle (1987) in 2014[139]
- First Vietnamese American and Asian-Pacific female: Jacqueline Nguyen (1991) in 2012[140][141][142]
- First South Asian female (federal court of appeals): Neomi Rao in 2019[143]
- First African American (female) (U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit): Tiffany P. Cunningham in 2021[144]
- First former federal (female) public defender to serve as a U.S. Circuit Judge: Candace Jackson-Akiwumi in 2021[145]
- First federal (female) public defender to serve as a U.S. Circuit Judge: Eunice C. Lee in 2021[146]
- First openly lesbian: Beth Robinson (1989) in 2021[147][148]
- First African American female (United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit): Dana Douglas in 2022[149]
- First African American female (United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit): Arianna J. Freeman in 2022[150]
- First Asian American [female] (United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit): Cindy K. Chung in 2023[151]
- First Latino American female (United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit): Irma Carrillo Ramirez in 2023[152]
- First African American female (United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit): Nancy Abudu in 2023[153]
- First openly lesbian [and LGBT person] (United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit): Nicole Berner in 2024[154]
U.S. Customs Court
- First female: Genevieve R. Cline (1921) in 1928[155]
Supreme Court of the U.S.
- First female: Sandra Day O'Connor (1952) in 1981[156]
- First Jewish female: Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1959) in 1993[157]
- First Hispanic American female: Sonia Sotomayor (1980) in 2009[158]
- First African American female: Ketanji Brown Jackson in 2022[159]
See also
- Women in law
- Women in the workforce
- List of female state supreme court justices
- List of first women lawyers and judges in the United States
- Ada Kepley, 1847-1925 - first woman to graduate from a law school in the United States (1870)
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- ^ staff, Madison365. "Kristy Yang, First Hmong American Woman Judge, Will Highlight Madison College/Women LEAD Event". Madison365. Retrieved 2018-12-26.
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- ^ "St. Paul lawyer is state's first judge of Hmong descent". Twin Cities. 2017-12-02. Retrieved 2018-01-12.
- ^ "Alumna Appointed as First Hmong Minnesota Judge | Inside Hamline | Hamline University". www.hamline.edu. Archived from the original on 2018-01-12. Retrieved 2018-01-12.
- ^ "State's 1st Hmong-American Judge on Journey from Laos to Minnesota's Judicial System". KSTP. Archived from the original on 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
- ^ "Governor Dayton Appoints Sophia Y. Vuelo to Fill Second Judicial District Vacancy". Office of Governor Mark Dayton and Lt. Governor Tina Smith. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
- ^ Santiago, Stephanie (2024-05-01). "President's Message - May 2024". WLALA. Retrieved 2024-06-03.
- ^ "Armenui Amy Ashvanian: First-Ever Armenian-Born Judge Making History in the U.S. – Asbarez.com". Ground News. Retrieved 2024-06-06.
- ^ "Loyno Magazine Fall 2020". Issuu. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
- ^ "American 'Batak' takes office as New Orleans judge". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
- ^ "Clark County swears in its first Asian American judge". The Columbian. Retrieved 2022-07-22.
- ^ "Tibetan Woman Appointed Superior Court Judge in USA". Tibetan Journal. 2022-05-13. Retrieved 2022-07-22.
- ^ De Dios, Austin (2022-12-17). "Oregon appoints the first Laotian judge in the United States". oregonlive. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
- ^ "Historic day in Houston as first female Sikh judge in the country swears in". ABC13 Houston. 2023-01-07. Retrieved 2023-01-09.
- ^ "Woman born in Syria makes history as first hijab-wearing Superior Court judge in the US". Arab News. 2023-03-29. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
- ^ "Arleigh M. Woods '53". Southwestern Law School. Retrieved 2018-01-23.
- ^ "African American Women Appeal Court Justices - Los Angeles Sentinel". Los Angeles Sentinel. 2012-03-29. Retrieved 2018-01-23.
- ^ Weatherford, Doris (2012-01-20). Women in American Politics: History and Milestones. SAGE. ISBN 9781608710072.
- ^ "Dorothy Comstock Riley". www.micourthistory.org. Retrieved 2019-01-12.
- ^ "Georgia High Court Chief Justice Leah Ward Sears". NPR.org. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
- ^ "Virginia Linder, first woman elected to Oregon Supreme Court, set to retire". OregonLive.com. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
- ^ COLLINS, DAVE. "Nominee would be first openly gay state chief justice". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2018-06-07.
- ^ Hernandez, Samantha L.; Navarro, Sharon A. (2018-11-29). Race, Gender, Sexuality, and the Politics of the American Judiciary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-56792-3.
- ^ Burrell, Barbara C. (2004). Women and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781851095926.
- ^ Inc, The Crisis Publishing Company (December 2005). The Crisis. The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc.
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has generic name (help) - ^ "Constance Baker Motley: Black History Month profile". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 2021-02-10.
- ^ Hoffman, Brian Gene. "Constance Baker Motley (1921-2005)". Retrieved 2021-02-10.
- ^ "Veronica DiCarlo Wicker | Eastern District of Louisiana | United States District Court". www.laed.uscourts.gov. Retrieved 2022-03-07.
- ^ Schudel, -Matt (2014-01-30). "Julia Cooper Mack, D.C. appellate judge, dies at 93". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-01-12.
- ^ Chavez, Virginia L. (Spring 1997). "A Biographical Piece on Irma Elsa Gonzalez: The First Mexican-American Woman Federal Judge" (PDF).
- ^ Martin, Mart (2018-04-24). The Almanac Of Women And Minorities In American Politics 2002. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-97648-3.
- ^ "National Asian Pacific American Bar Association: Celebrating Our Progress in the Federal Judiciary-A Report on the 15-Year Anniversary of the NAPABA Judiciary Committee" (PDF). NAPABA. 2009.
- ^ Herrick, Rebekah (2016-01-29). Minorities and Representation in American Politics. CQ Press. ISBN 9781483386850.
- ^ Rights, United States Congress Senate Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property (January 2003). Judicial nominations, filibusters, and the Constitution: when a majority is denied its right to consent : hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, first session, May 6, 2003. U.S. G.P.O. ISBN 9780160713897.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Congress, United States (2009). Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the ... Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office.
- ^ "June 8: Judge Lucy H. Koh becomes the first Korean American confirmed as U.S. District Court Judge". Northwest Asian Weekly. 2010-07-01. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
- ^ "Cathy Bissoon | Western District of Pennsylvania | United States District Court". www.pawd.uscourts.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
- ^ Shepherd, David Lat, Elie Mystal, Staci Zaretsky, Kashmir Hill, Marin, Mark Herrmann, Jay. "Above the Law". Above the Law. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Stern, Mark Joseph (2014-06-17). "Obama's Most Enduring Gay Rights Achievement". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
- ^ "First Out Lesbian Latina Confirmed to Federal Judgeship". 2013-06-13. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
- ^ "Diversity". State Bar of Arizona. Archived from the original on 2016-10-10. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
- ^ Burke, Melissa Nann. "Senate confirms Oakland County judge, first Chaldean, to federal bench". The Detroit News. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ^ "First Greek-American Woman Appointed Federal Judge". GreekReporter.com. 2020-02-26. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
- ^ "Native Judges Belong on the Federal Bench". Yahoo News. 2023-11-27. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
- ^ "Choudhury Confirmed as First Muslim Woman Federal Judge (1)". news.bloomberglaw.com. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
- ^ "UH law school alumna appointed to federal judgeship | University of Hawaiʻi System News". 2023-11-30. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
- ^ "President Obama Nominates Judge Bernice Bouie Donald for United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit". whitehouse.gov. 2010-12-01. Retrieved 2018-01-12.
- ^ "HON. BERNICE B. DONALD" (PDF). ABA Section of Litigation - Chicago Section Annual Conference. April 2013.
- ^ Times, LINDA GREENHOUSE; Special to The New York (1988-04-28). "Burnita S. Matthews Dies at 93; First Woman on U.S. Trial Courts". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-01-09.
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- ^ Danico, Mary Yu (2014-08-19). Asian American Society: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781483365602.
- ^ "Judge Alexander Ford to retire". The Tuskegee News. Retrieved 2018-01-12.
- ^ "The Honorable Amalya L. Kearse". www.law.umich.edu. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
- ^ "Two California Latino judges emerge as candidates for Supreme Court". The Mercury News. 2009-05-16. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
- ^ "First black, openly gay man confirmed as U.S. federal judge". Reuters. June 17, 2014. Retrieved 2018-01-17.
- ^ "Despite Little Experience, New LA Judge Ready for Bench". 2016-12-20. Retrieved 2018-02-07.
- ^ "Jacqueline Nguyen confirmed for 9th Circuit court". SFGate. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
- ^ "1st Vietnamese-Am. female federal judge confirmed". sandiegouniontribune.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
- ^ Mollway, Susan Oki (2021-09-30). The First Fifteen: How Asian American Women Became Federal Judges. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-9788-2452-2.
- ^ "'Truly Historic': Tiffany P. Cunningham Is Confirmed as First Black Judge for the Federal Circuit". Atlanta Black Star. 2021-08-01. Retrieved 2022-01-24.
- ^ "President Biden picks ex-federal public defender Candace Jackson-Akiwumi for Chicago federal appeals court seat". Chicago Sun-Times. 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2022-04-12.
- ^ "Meet Eunice Lee, First Federal Defender Tapped to Serve as 2nd Circuit Judge". New York Law Journal. Retrieved 2022-04-12.
- ^ "Beth Robinson, Vermont's First Openly Gay Supreme Court Justice, Sworn In (VIDEO)". Huffington Post. 2011-11-29. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
- ^ "First Out Lesbian Judge Confirmed to Federal Appeals Court". www.advocate.com. 2021-11-01. Retrieved 2021-11-02.
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Articles
- Sandra Day O'Connor, The Challenge of a Woman in Law, WOMEN IN LAW 5 (Shimon Shetreet, ed. 1998).
- Sandra Day O'Connor, The Effects of Gender in the Federal Courts: The Final Report of the Ninth Circuit Gender Bias Task Force: The Quality of Justice, 67 S. Cal. L. Rev. 745 (1994).
- Rose Elizabeth Bird, Forward, WOMEN IN THE COURTS ix (1978).
- Beverly Blair Cook, Women Judges: The End of Tokenism, WOMEN IN THE COURTS 84 (Winifred L. Hepperle & Laura Crites eds., 1978).
- Beverly Blair Cook, Moral Authority & Gender Difference: Georgia Bullock & the Los Angeles Women's Court, 77 JUDICATURE 144 (1993).
- Walter J. Walsh, Speaking Truth to Power: The Jurisprudence of Julia Cooper Mack, 40 HOW. L. J. 291, 296 (1997).
- Lynn Hecht Schafran, Gender Bias in the Courts: An Emerging Focus For Judicial Reform, 21 Ariz. St. L.J. 237 (1989).
- Resnick, Ambivalence: The Resiliency of Legal Culture in the United States, 45 Stan. L. Rev. 1525 (1993).
- Judith A. Baer, WOMEN IN AMERICAN LAW 290 (1996).
- Felice K. Shea, Women on the Bench, 12 Colum. J. Gender & L. 361, 379-380 (2003).
- Dolores K. Sloviter, Personal Reflections on Creation of the Third Circuit Task Force on Equal Treatment in the Courts, 42 Vill. L. Rev. 1347, 1352 (1997).
- Byrna Bogoch, Courtroom Disclosure and the Gendered Construction of Professional Identity, 24 L. & Soc. Inquiry 329, 334 (1999).
- Joyce S. Sterling, The Impact of Gender Bias on Judging: Survey of Attitudes Toward Women Judges, 22 COLO. LAW. 257 (Feb. 1993
- Jeffrey Toobin, Women in Black, NEW YORKER, at 48 (Oct. 30, 2000).
- Belva Ann Lockwood, "My Efforts to Become a Lawyer", Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, February 1888.
- See articles about women attorneys by Barbara Babcock, Jill Norgren, and Mary Clark
- See articles posted on the Stanford University Law School Women and Law website
Studies
- American Bar Association, Commission on Women in the Profession (2003), available at Women in the Profession.
- Conference of Chief Justices, Resolution XVIII, "Task Forces on Gender Bias and Minority Concerns," (adopted Aug. 4, 1988)
- Conference of State Court Administrators, Resolution I, "Task Forces on Gender Bias and Minority Concerns," (adopted Aug 4. 1998)).
- Carrol Seron, Ph.D. et al., A Report Of The Perceptions And Experiences Of Lawyers, Judges, And Court Employees Concerning Gender, Racial And Ethnic Fairness In The Federal Courts Of The Second Circuit Of The United States, 1997 Ann. Surv. Am. L. 419, 457 (1997)
Cases
- In re Goodell, 39 Wis. 232, 245 (1875)
- Bradwell v. Illinois, 83 U.S. 130, 141 (1873) "Mrs. Myra Bradwell, residing in the State of Illinois, made application to the judges of the Supreme Court of that State for a license to practice law. She accompanied her petition with the usual certificate from an inferior court of her good character, and that on due examination she had been found to possess the requisite qualifications. Pending this application she also filed an affidavit, to the effect 'that she was born in the State of Vermont; that she was (had been) a citizen of that State; that she is now a citizen of the United States, and has been for many years past a resident of the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois.' And with this affidavit she also filed a paper asserting that, under the foregoing facts, she was entitled to the license prayed for by virtue of the second section of the fourth article of the Constitution of the United States, and of the fourteenth article of amendment of that instrument." Bradwell v. Illinois is at 83 U.S. 130 (1872).
Books
- J. Clay Smith, ed., Rebels in Law: Voices in History of Black Women Lawyers (University of Michigan Press, 1998)
- Jill Norgren, Belva Lockwood: The Woman Who Would be President (New York University Press, 2007).
- Jill Norgren, Equal Rights Pioneer: Belva Lockwood (for young readers)(Lerner Books, August 2008).
- See books by Virginia Drachman
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